Basic types of representations. Basic objects and methods of managing WINDOWS
Modern computers impossible to imagine without the presence in them operating system- means of interaction between the user and the computer (programs and hardware components). Today there are dozens of them. Consider the question of what are the main objects of the operating system on the example of Windows OS.
Form of organization of interaction between the user and the operating system
At the present stage of development computer industry Most OS developers use object-oriented programming methods and graphical interfaces to simplify the user's work as much as possible or provide quick access to the necessary information or settings.
If earlier OS with batch data input was used, when it was necessary to ask the system to execute a certain command by manually entering it, today, thanks to the presence GUI, this task is greatly simplified. The user does not enter commands, but presses buttons to organize an event, activate a process, confirm the execution of programs, change settings, etc. But what operating system objects exist, what role do they play, what are their properties, what actions to take with them can be produced? Consider the basic concepts.
The main objects of the operating system
At one time, Microsoft Corporation, when developing the first Windows versions refused to use the organization of work used in DOS systems. The very name of the Windows operating system testified that it consisted of windows in graphical representation, which allowed the use of the so-called multitasking mode with quick switching between programs, options and settings. However, even the essence is not in the windows.
Today you can find many different classifications, but in the broadest sense, operating system objects can be represented as the following list:
- graphical interface ("Desktop", windows, panels, menus, shortcuts and icons, switches, buttons, interactive shells);
- file organization of files and directories);
- applications and documents (executable elements, programs or their combination, files created in programs).
Interface
One of the main places is given to the interface. The first thing the user sees after starting the OS is the “Desktop” and “Taskbar”, which contain buttons, shortcuts and other auxiliary elements. The properties of objects of this type are such that with their help you can access almost all the functions and capabilities of the OS.
Particular attention in this regard is given to the "Start" button and the menu of the same name that is called when you click on it. Most of the links to programs and basic settings are located here. Please note that the applications are physically located in a different place, and the menu contains only shortcuts, presented in the form of application names or settings with icons.
Pictograms or icons as objects of the operating system are small graphic images. The difference between shortcuts and icons is that, in addition to the program name or file name, shortcuts also describe some properties of applications, settings or documents, and also indicate the location of the file itself to be opened. To describe the files, there is also an indication of the program with which it can be opened.
Menus are means of selecting user actions. Conventionally, they can be divided into main and contextual (those that are called by the right click). However, the organization of the main menus is part of the objects called windows. And the menu can also be attributed to the controls, since it is in them that the user is prompted to select a specific action.
Windows: types and available operations with them
Windows are basic objects (Windows or any other computer OS). They have the main space where information is displayed, or, as it is also called, the work area. There are also special panels with main menus containing sets of commands or actions, buttons quick access to certain functions, scroll bars, etc.
Actions with operating system objects of this type consist in the fact that their size can be reduced or increased, collapsed and expanded, to quickly switch between programs, change the scaling of the workspace, etc. In addition, the windows themselves are basic and dialog, which provides closer interaction between the program and the user.
Controls
And here it is worth dwelling separately on the controls. The main element, if you do not take into account tablet PCs or smartphones, as well as touch screens, is a cursor with which you can move around the entire interface, call some actions, resize, etc.
The cursor is "attached" to the mouse in stationary PCs or to the touchpad in laptops. In general terms, a cursor is not just a pointing element. For example, when stretching windows, it changes its icon. Thus, even by changing the state of the cursor, you can always determine what kind of action is performed or is supposed to be performed in this moment. Again, if an hourglass appears on the screen or a rotating one indicates that some process is currently being executed and there will be no access to it until it is completed.
Another control element - screen keyboard, which has received the main distribution on tablets and smartphones, when the connection of the "iron" keyboard is not provided.
Files and folders
Finally, the largest class are directories (directories, folders) and files, which together form a single structure called the file system.
Files and folders in terms of computer system do not differ from each other, since even directories themselves are files without an extension and also occupy a certain disk space (and for empty folder zero size can be specified in file manager, But actually it is not). Just for the convenience of grouping files that are similar in some way, the method of combining them into one directory is used.
Physically, despite the fact that some files seem to be present in some directory, they can be located in completely different places. hard drive. The properties of operating system objects of this type are determined primarily by size (occupied space on the hard disk), location in the file structure, type, etc.
And for sure everyone knows exactly what actions can be performed with both types. Working with objects presented in the form individual files or entire directories, comes down to more than simple operations like copying, deleting, renaming, or moving. Files, for example, can be viewed, edited, opened in a specific program (often with the ability to choose the application yourself), and many other actions.
Instead of total
But in general it is only short review the main objects of any OS. Note that here we did not consider the organization of the same system registry only for the simple reason that today you can also find OSes in which it is absent as such (Linux), and the key structure is very similar to the organization of files and folders. Actually, the keys themselves are files. By the way, applications and programs are also files or a collection of files to be executed by means of the operating system.
Representations in the life of each person play their role - in some people, visual representations predominate, in others - auditory, in others - motor representations. According to the role played by representations, people differ from each other. Depending on the prevailing type of representations, they are divided into 4 groups. In addition to the three groups mentioned above, there is a group of persons with mixed representations.
If past perceptual experience underlies representations, then the main classification of representations is based on the classification of types of sensation and perception. Based on this, the following types of representations are distinguished:
- visual representations;
- auditory representations;
- Motor performances;
- Tactile representations;
- Olfactory representations;
- Taste presentations;
- Temperature representations;
- organic representations.
This is not a single approach to the classification of representations, for example, B.M. Teplov believes that the classification of representations can be represented according to the following criteria:
- By content. In this regard, one can distinguish mathematical, geographical, technical, musical, etc.
- The degree of generalization. Here we can talk about private and general representations;
- According to the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts - involuntary and arbitrary representations. Classification of representations according to B.M. Teplov is shown in the diagram.
visual representations
In some cases, visual representations can be very specific and convey all the visible qualities of an object - its color, shape, volume. In all other cases of visual representations, some one quality will prevail, while others may be absent. As a rule, visual representations do not have three-dimensionality and are reproduced in the form of a two-dimensional picture, which can be either colorful or colorless. The nature of visual representations depends on the content and practical activity during which they arise.
For example, in the process of drawing, artists have bright, detailed and stable visual images. In order to transfer these visual images to paper, representation is necessary, so they can be superimposed on sensations and combined with them. The artist combines an imaginary image with a sheet of paper.
Representation is attributed to cognitive mental processes, therefore, in terms of education, it plays an important role. The assimilation of any material is associated with visual representations, for example, in geography lessons, a student represents the natural area or sea area in question, in physical education lessons, represents the action that needs to be carried out, etc.
Visual images of memory in people who lost their sight at an early age will be few. They reflect only those objects and phenomena that caused them strong emotional experiences.
auditory representations
Auditory representations include speech and musical representations. Speech representations include phonetic and timbre-intonation. Representations of any word without reference to intonation, to sound coloring are phonetic representations. Here we are talking about the representation of the "word in general".
Representations are timbre-intonation, associated with the timbre of the voice, with the peculiarities of the intonation of some specific person. Representations of this kind are very important for a number of professions - actors, teachers, etc.
Such auditory representations as musical ones are a representation of a sequence of sounds, their relationship to each other in height and duration, in rhythm. Of course, the musical performance will be very well developed among composers and musicians who are able to imagine the sound of a whole orchestra of instruments.
motor representations
Motor representations include images of movements of varying degrees of complexity. They are always associated with real sensations, muscle tone. Any motor representation, as experiments have shown, is accompanied by muscle contraction. If, for example, you imagine that you bend your arm at the elbow, then the devices register the contraction that occurs in the biceps. Moreover, even a mentally spoken word leads to a contraction in the muscles of the tongue, lips, and larynx. It turns out, therefore, that the whole human body is a model of itself.
Weak motor sensations serve as the material basis of motor representations.
Motor representations can be divided into groups:
- Ideas about the movement of the whole body;
- Ideas about the movement of individual parts. As a rule, these representations are the result of a fusion of motor sensations with visual images;
- Speech motor representations. These representations are the result of the merging of speech-motor sensations with auditory images of words.
The first two types are called visual-motor in a different way, the third type is called auditory-motor. More complex are the ideas about the movement of the whole body, in comparison with individual parts of the body.
All the main types of representations are to some extent related to each other, so their division into classes and types is very conditional.
Spatio-temporal representations
Spatio-temporal representations were singled out as a separate group. This is due to the fact that they clearly represent the spatial form and placement of objects, changes in shape and placement in time. With this representation, objects can be represented schematically and colorless, so the concept of "visual image" is not applicable to them. You can call them "schematic representations".
Basically, these representations are visual-motor, which are based on visual and motor representations. Spatio-temporal representations are typical for chess players who calculate different options for the development of the game. They are also typical for coaches of football teams who present attack and defense schemes during the game, drivers who evaluate the traffic situation.
When studying physical and technical disciplines, space-time representations are also very important. Theoretical physicists operate precisely with space-time representations. There are flat and three-dimensional spatial representations.
According to the degree of generalization, general representations are distinguished, reflecting the properties of a number of similar objects, and single ones, based on the observation of one object. According to volitional efforts, they can be involuntary and arbitrary. The classification of the main types of representations is shown in the diagram.
Topic 1. 2. The concept of data type
The concept of a variable
In any program that processes data, variables are used as operands in expressions. A variable is often defined as a pair of "name" - "value". The name corresponds to the address of the memory area allocated to the variable, and the value is the contents of this area.
Variable- This is a named area of computer memory allocated for storing specific data, the value of which, in the general case, can change during program execution.
The declaration of variables in the program has the following format:
Let's look at each element of this description.
Name– identifier;
Every variable, constant, function, every expression in a program written in the language high level, has a certain type. Data different types stored and processed differently.
Data type defines:
Internal representation of data in computer memory;
Operations and functions that can be applied to objects of this type;
The set of values that values of this type can take.
All types of the C++ language are divided into main And derivatives (compound).
Basic data types
In programming languages, the main data types include data types for storing numbers (integer type, real type) and characters.
The C++ language defines seven basic data types: six to represent integer, real, character, and boolean values, and one special type, void. To describe the six main ones, the following keywords:
int-whole,
char, wchar_t- symbolic
float, double- real,
bool- logical.
In addition, there are four specifiers that specify the internal representation and range of values standard types:
short- short ,
long- long ,
signed- signed (most significant bit is interpreted as sign, 0 is positive, 1 is negative) ,
unsigned- unsigned .
Integer, character, and real types are also called arithmetic types.
Variable declaration examples:
int a,b;//two variables of integer type
float summa;// variable of real type
Let's consider the main types in more detail.
Under variable integer type (int) 2 or 4 bytes are allocated (for a 16-bit and 32-bit processor, respectively). short int - 2 bytes, long int - 4 bytes. Constants are assigned a type according to their type. By default, integer constants are interpreted as short and signed. To change this interpretation, you can use suffixes - L, l, U, u. For example, 8L, 71u.
Character type(char) - 1 byte. (For wchar_t– depends on the implementation, usually 2 bytes).
Consider the internal representation of a range of values using the char type as an example.
The smallest unsigned number one byte long 00000000 2 =0
The largest unsigned number one byte long is 11111111 2 =255.
Therefore, the unsigned char type allows you to store 256 different characters with codes from 0 to 255.
The smallest positive number one byte long 00000000 2 =0
Largest positive number one byte long 01111111 2 =127
Largest negative number one byte long 11111111 2 =-1
The smallest negative number one byte long 10000000 2 = -128
Recall that to obtain the absolute value of a negative number, it is inverted, that is, replace 0 with 1, 1 with 0, and add one. For example, a negative number is 10000000. Invert - 01111111. Add 1
Therefore, the signed type char allows you to store 256 different characters with codes from -128 to 127.
Boolean type (bool)- 1 byte. The value of values of this type is either true ( true or 1) or false ( false or 0). Any null value is interpreted as false, any non-zero value is interpreted as true.
Real type(float, double, long double). The internal representation of real values consists of two things - the mantissa and the exponent. For example, 148.35 can be represented as 1.4835 * 10 2, where 1.4835 is the mantissa, 2 is the order. Mantissa >1 and< 2. Длинна мантиссы определяет точность числа, а длина порядка его диапазон. Для float отводится 4 байта = 1 знак + 8 порядок + 23 мантисса). Так как старшая цифра мантиссы =1, то она не хранится. Для double отводится 8 байт = 1 знак+11 порядок+52 мантисса. Константы вещественного типа по умолчанию имеют тип double. Для его изменения можно использовать суффиксы F,f,L,l.
void type is a special type, the set of values of this type is empty. It is not used when declaring variables.
In addition, I use the specifier typedef you can enter convenient descriptions for complex types. For example,
typedef unsigned char UC;
UC symbol; // symbol is type variable UC, i.e. unsigned character
Let's continue to consider the syntax of variable declaration:
[storage class]type name1 [initial_expression1], name2 [initial_expression2],…;
In order to understand what is storage class Let us introduce several definitions.
Each program object in particular a variable is characterized by such parameters as
Scope;
Area of visibility;
Lifetime (length of existence).
Scope is the part of the program where an identifier can be used to access a variable. If a variable is declared inside a block, then it is called local and its scope from the point of description to the end of the block. If the variable is declared outside the block, then the variable is called global and its scope is from the point of description to the end of the file.
Area of visibility is a part of the program from which it is possible usual variable access. Most often, the scope coincides with the scope, but there are exceptions - if variables with the same names are used in nested blocks (the external variable is invisible in this case).
#include
( cout< cout< cout<<::a; The variable name must be unique within its scope. Duration of existence can be constant (static) (the variable exists in memory during the execution of the program), local (the variable exists during the execution of the block in which the declaration) and dynamic (such variables are created and destroyed using explicit statements during the execution of the program). Memory class determines the location of objects in memory, the duration of existence and the scope of the variable. The following specifiers are used to define it: auto– automatic variable (memory is allocated on the stack, lifetime - from the moment of description to the end of the block, for local this specifier is valid - by default, for global - not used); external- external variable means that the variable is defined elsewhere in the program (another file or below), available in all program modules where they are described; static is a static variable. The lifetime is constant. They can be both local and global. In this case, a global static variable can only be used within the module where it is defined. register– similar to auto, but memory is allocated in processor registers if possible (otherwise treated as auto). If the class is not specified explicitly, then it is determined by the compiler based on the context of the variable declaration. initial_expression– an optional initializer that defines the initial value of the corresponding object. Variable initializer syntax: initial_expression (initial_expression). For example, int a=10, c(11); If there is no initializing value, then global and static variables are assigned the null value of the corresponding type, automatic variables are not initialized. If the type of the initializing expression does not match the type of the variable, then it is converted according to certain rules (see reference books). For example, char sim=0x61; cout< bool f=10; cout< You can also explicitly convert types: (name of the type to convert to) variable name the name of the type to which we are converting (variable name). For example, charch='a'; cout<< (int) ch; или cout << int (ch);// на экране появится ASCII-кода символа a Valid implicit type conversions must be used with great care. Optional modifier const indicates that the value of the variable cannot be changed. If the description contains a modifier const, then the presence of an initializing expression is mandatory. That is, the entry const int a; The description of a variable is carried out in the program in the form of a declaration or definition (here, there is also a confusion of concepts in the literature). Ad informs the compiler about the type of the variable and the storage class, and when definition A variable is allocated memory according to its type. A variable can be declared multiple times, but defined only once. In most cases, the declaration is also the definition. A declaration is not a definition if Contains the extern specifier; Describes the name of a user-supplied type; Describes a function prototype; Describes the class name; Describes a static component of a class. Based on the basic types, you can enter derived types: links, pointers, enumerations, arrays, functions, structures, unions, classes. Pointers, references and enumerations, along with arithmetic and logical types, are classified as scalar, and the rest as structured. Representation images are classified on several grounds: the type of analyzers included in the image formation process; degree of generalization of images; the degree of volitional effort required to form the image; the duration of saving images, etc. By type of analyzer, included in the process of image formation, distinguish visual, auditory and motor representations. visual representations reproduce the shape, dimensions, color of the object. At the same time, in visual representations, some one parameter of the object is usually singled out, most often associated with the constant occupation of the individual. For example, an architect walking through the city will be more attracted to the elements of architecture than his companion, who is not directly related to urban planning. Accordingly, all this will be reflected in the content of the representational images of these people. In representational images, the architect will have better and more representation of details relevant to architecture. Figure 8.1 - Classification of views auditory representations reproduce the timbre, phonetics and intonation of sound objects. The quality and content of these images is also determined by the nature of professional activity. motor representations reproduce the movement of any part of the body. Such representations cause abbreviations of the corresponding muscle groups. It has been experimentally established that if such muscle contractions are somehow neutralized, then representations become impossible. A similar picture is observed in relation to speech: it is worth imagining the process of pronouncing a word, how it causes muscle contractions in the larynx. Single representations are images of certain specific objects, while general representations are a generalized image of a whole group of homogeneous objects. For example, the image of a car - this is a generalized image of representation, the image of your own car is a single image of representation. Arbitrary and involuntary representations differ in that they arise by themselves or at the request of the individual with the participation of the will. For example, going to a business meeting, a person consciously tries to imagine the future situation based on the information he has about the composition of the participants, their interests, the room where this meeting should take place, etc. The resulting representation will be arbitrary. But the image of the idea of the meeting that arose in the mind of a person in addition to his desire when going to a night's sleep is an involuntary idea. By duration of existence distinguish short-term and long-term representations. Short-term representations provide ongoing activity, they exist for fractions of seconds. For example, in the process of pronouncing a phrase, a short-term representation arises that helps to build this phrase. Operational Views exist until the end of the problem. Long-term representations stored in long-term memory and used periodically. They are usually professional representations. For example, a specialist in IT technologies will have such representations: a program, an algorithm, an interface, a printer, a computer, etc. The individual features of representations are manifested in the predominance of any representation that people usually use when reproducing images of an object. As a rule, a person does not think about what kind of representations is leading for him. Meanwhile, awareness of this can provide significant assistance in mastering some knowledge, in the successful performance of professional activities, in ensuring mutual understanding in business communication, etc. So, if the leading type of representations of an individual are: –
auditory representations, then the reproducible image of the object emerges in his mind mainly in the form of the sound of words (for example, when preparing for an exam, an auditory student will be greatly helped by the sound images of the presentation that arise in him in the form of fragments of lectures reproduced by the lecturer's voice); –
visual representations, then when reproducing the material of the subject, visual pictures come to his aid (fragments of the pages of an abstract or textbook); –
motor representations, then, trying to remember or reproduce the object, the individual connects any motor acts (mental pronunciation, kinesthetic actions, etc.). A person can have several leading types of representations. Dynamics of Representations in the Process of Individual Development humans have not yet been sufficiently studied. The experimental data accumulated to date show that: -
the first representations in a person appear at about the age of one and a half years; -
develops rapidly by the age of two auditory-motor and speech representations. Providing rapid development of speech; By the age of 5-6, visual representations receive proper development (the child learns the world more through visual images). Ideas can be developed. To do this, it is necessary to accumulate perceptual information in a certain area. It is impossible, for example, to evoke an idea about the possible cause of a TV malfunction if a person has never studied its device and principle of operation. Most often, when they want to emphasize the perfection of a person as a representative of the living world, they call his command of speech. As a mental cognitive process, speech allows a person to: –
interact with other people while solving various problems of everyday life: –
receive and use in practice relevant information that is inaccessible to the processes of sensory cognition, sensation and perception (rules of behavior, moral values, laws of nature and the psyche, etc.); –
study the history of life on the planet; –
enrich their knowledge with the experience of previous generations; –
share information with other people. Speech is the process of practical use of language in order to communicate with other people. Speech and language are not the same thing. Speech is a process of communication, and language is a means of communication. Speech is realized through language. As a means of communication, language plays the role of conventional symbols (signs) accepted in a given community of people. Speech voices, "revives" language symbols. Speech cannot exist without a subject of communication. Language can exist and develop as complex formations and have a certain structure that ensures their normal functioning. One of the common elements of speech and language is the word. In the linguistic aspect, we can say that a word is the minimum element (unit) of a language that can be used autonomously in oral or written speech. The language sets a specific semantic load behind each word - meaning. The meaning of a word is what a person thinks when he hears this word or sees it in writing. Taken separately, the word represents to the person what stands behind it in a generalized form. So, behind the word "theater" in the mind of a person, images of theaters that he himself has been, heard about or seen on TV are reproduced. Used in speech together with others, the word acquires a semantic meaning in accordance with the context. Context is those surrounding words, phrases, sentences, fragments of a conversation or even situations of communication that give a given word a specific meaning. Take, for example, this question: What is your impression of this theatre? If a question is asked by one amateur theater-goer to another, then the meaning of the word "theatre" refers the interlocutors to a particular theater that came on tour to their city. If this question refers to a participant in an interpersonal conflict in a work team, then the meaning of the word "theatre" is colored by a negative feeling associated with an unpleasant event of a socio-psychological plan - a scandal. Thus, the meaning of the word that is in the mind of one of the interlocutors must be conveyed to the dialogue partner without distortion. This obliges the participants in the conversation to take care of placing the word in a contextual framework that limits the level of generalization of this word. 47.
Structure of language and speech.
The structure of the language includes three main elements: phonemes, morphemes and grammar. Phonemes are sounds whose sequential pronunciation leads to the formation of words. Violation of the sequence of phonemes or their replacement lead, as a rule, to a change in the meanings of words. For example, in the word "cat" there are three phonemes - "k", "o" and "t". Putting the phonemes in reverse order, we get the word "current" with a completely different meaning. The same effect will be if we replace the last phoneme in the word "cat" with "d". Morphemes are the smallest linguistic units that have meanings. They can be used in the language either independently (“hell”, “I”, “however”), or in combination with another morpheme (“at” - opened, “over” - construction). Morphemes can be both single-phonemic and multi-phonemic. Grammar is a system of rules by which sentences (phrases) are built in a given language. Thanks to the observance of these rules, people can communicate, understanding the true meaning of what was said. Grammar has two aspects - syntactic and semantic. Syntactic aspect provides the language with the rules for connecting words in a sentence in such a way as to correctly perceive their content side. Let's compare the sentences "February fourteenth - St. Valentine's Day" and "St. Valentine's - the fourteenth day of February." Semantic aspect associated with the study of the meanings of words in any of their manifestations. Thus, the addition of the morphemes “from”, “under”, “y” to the word “carry” will significantly change the semantic meaning of this word. To the elements of the functional structure of speech include speech acts. A speech act is a message expressed in words, the purpose of which is either to convey information or to stimulate action. The most common speech acts are declaratives, directives, expressives, representatives, commissives. Declaratory act- this is a speech act consisting in a message (declaration) to the interlocutor of information in order to significantly change the current situation. For example, an adult daughter tells her parents: "I'm getting married." A directive act is a verbal administrative action that forces the interlocutor to do what he is told. In this case, the order can be expressed directly or indirectly. For example, a teacher’s statement to a negligent student: “I ask you not to be late for my classes again” is direct directive. When a laboratory employee says to his colleague: “Draft”, meaning not the transfer of information, but a hidden requirement to close the door or window, then this will be indirect directive. expressive act- a speech action that orients the interlocutor to free, liberated behavior in this situation. For example, the host tells the guests: "Make yourself at home." Representative Act- this is a speech act that distinguishes an object from similar ones. For example, the words of a history teacher about a famous person: "He is one of those who achieved his goal." A commissive act is a speech act consisting in the assumption by the speaker of some obligations. For example, in the famous cartoon, the mice once again declare to the cat Leopold: "We will not do this again." Basic objects and methods of managing WINDOWS Modern Windows is the operating system that controls the operation of a personal computer. Windows has a user-friendly graphical user interface. Unlike the old text-based DOS operating system, Windows does not require knowledge of operating system commands and their precise keyboard input. The vast majority of operations to manage the operation of a personal computer are performed with the mouse over Windows graphic objects, or with short key combinations (hot keys) on the keyboard. User interface- these are methods and means of human interaction with computer hardware and software. Desktop is a graphical environment that displays Windows objects and controls. On the desktop, you can see icons (icons), shortcuts, and the taskbar (primary control). When Windows starts, there are at least three icons on the desktop: My Computer, Network Places, Recycle Bin. There may be other icons on the desktop. It can also be used as a temporary storage for your files, but when you finish working in the classroom, they must either be deleted or moved to their own folders. Badges are a graphic representation of objects and allow you to manage them. Icon -
is a graphical representation of an object in a collapsed form, corresponding to a folder, program, document, network device, or computer. Icons, as a rule, have labels - inscriptions that are located under them. Left-clicking on an icon allows you to select it, and double-clicking to open (launch) the application corresponding to this icon. Label is a pointer to an object. A shortcut is a special file that contains a link to the object it represents (information about the location of the object on the hard drive). Double-clicking on a shortcut allows you to launch (open) the object it represents. Removing it does not erase the object itself, unlike deleting the icon. The advantage of shortcuts is that they provide quick access to an object from any folder without wasting memory. You can tell a label from an icon by the small arrow in the lower left corner of the icon. Task bar is a tool for switching between open folders or applications. On the left side of the taskbar is the "Start" button; on the right - the display panel. The panel itself displays all currently open objects. Start button opens Main menu. With it, you can run all programs registered in the operating system, access all the operating system settings, search and help systems, and other functions. The central concept of Windows is the window. Window- a structural and control element of the user interface, which is a rectangular area of the screen limited by a frame, in which an application, document or message can be displayed. The figure above shows the Windows desktop with the Main Menu open, Word processor window, icons and shortcuts, and some documents minimized on the taskbar. Of the other concepts of Windows, the concepts of a directory and a folder should be noted. Catalog- a named group of files united by some attribute. Folder is a concept that is used in Windows instead of directory in earlier operating systems. The concept of a folder has an extended interpretation, since along with the usual directories, folders also represent objects such as My Computer, Explorer, Printer, Modem, etc. A typical folder window is shown in the figure. The window contains the following mandatory elements. The file system provides storage and access to files on the disk. The principle of organizing the file system is tabular. The disk surface is considered as a three-dimensional matrix, the dimensions of which are the numbers of the surface, cylinder and sector. Under cylinder the totality of all tracks belonging to different surfaces and equidistant from the axis of rotation is meant. Data about where a particular file is recorded is stored in the system area of the disk in a special file allocation table ( FAT table). The FAT table is stored in two copies, the identity of which is controlled by the operating system. MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows-95/NT implement 16-bit fields in FAT tables. This system was called FAT-16. Such a system allows placing no more than 65536 records on the location of data storage units. The smallest unit of data storage is sector. The sector size is 512 bytes. Sector groups are conditionally combined into clusters, which is the smallest unit of data addressing. The cluster size depends on the disk capacity: in Fat-16 for disks from 1 to 2 GB, 1 cluster occupies 64 sectors or 32 KB. This is not rational, since even a small file occupies 1 cluster. Large files spanning multiple clusters end up with an empty cluster. Therefore, the loss of capacity for disks in a FAT-16 system can be very large. With drives larger than 2.1 GB, FAT-16 does not work at all. Windows 98 and older versions implement a more advanced file system - FAT-32 with 32-bit fields in the file allocation table. It provides a small cluster size for high capacity disks. For example, for a disk up to 8 GB, 1 cluster occupies 8 sectors (4 KB). File is a named sequence of bytes of arbitrary length. Before the advent of Windows-95, the generally accepted file naming scheme was the 8.3 scheme (short name) - 8 characters for the actual file name, 3 characters for the extension of its name. The disadvantage of short names is their low content. Since Windows-95, the concept of a long name (up to 256 characters) has been introduced. It can contain any character except nine special characters: \ / : * ? "< >
|. Name extension all characters after the last dot are counted. In modern operating systems, the name extension carries important information about the file type for the system. File types are registered and associate the file with the program that opens it. For example, the MyText.doc file will be opened by the Word word processor, because the .doc extension is usually associated with this application. Usually, if the file is not associated with any opening program, then a flag is indicated on its icon - the Microsoft Windows logo, and the user can specify the opening program himself by selecting it from the list provided by the OS. Logically, the file structure is organized hierarchically: folders of lower levels are nested in folders of higher levels. The top level of nesting is the root directory of the disk. The terms "folder" and "directory" are synonymous. Each directory of files on the disk corresponds to the operating system folder of the same name. However, the concept of a folder is somewhat broader. So in Windows-95 there are special folders that provide convenient access to programs, but which do not correspond to any directory on the disk. File attributes are parameters that define some file properties. To access the attributes of a file, right-click on its icon and select the Properties menu. There are 4 main attributes: "Read-only", "Hidden", "System", Archive". The "Read-only" attribute implies that the file is not intended to be modified. The "Hidden" attribute indicates that this file should not be displayed on the screen during file operations.The "System" attribute marks the most important OS files (as a rule, they also have the "Hidden" attribute. The "Archive" attribute is associated with file backup and has no special meaning. Copy and move 1 way. Place two windows on the desktop: source and copy destination. Select the necessary icons in the source window. Several icons are highlighted when the Ctrl key is pressed. Drag the selected icons to the destination window by pointing to any of the selected icons. When the Ctrl key is pressed at the same time, copying occurs, without it, elements are moved (provided that the folders are on the same disk). 2 way. Select the elements to be copied. Select the Edit/Copy (Cut) menu. When you select "Cut" will move. Open destination folder. Select the Edit/Paste menu. Deleting files and folders Deleting files is done by selecting items and pressing the Delete key. In this case, the marked items are moved to a special folder - the Recycle Bin. Emptying the Recycle Bin destroys files. There is also the operation of erasing files, when special utilities fill the clusters that contained the files being erased with random data. Bulk File Operations If you need to perform a copy or delete operation with a large number of files at the same time, then selecting them while holding Ctrl is not very convenient. You can select a whole group of consecutive icons by clicking on the first of them and, while holding down the Shift key, on the last one. However, in this case, you need to arrange the icons in a certain way. To do this, open the folder with the files and go to the View/Arrange Icons menu. There are 4 ways to organize icons in a folder: by name, by type, by size, by date. For example, you need to copy all files with a .txt extension. In this case, you should sort the icons by type, after which all files of type .txt will be grouped together and use the Shift key to select them. A similar technique is used to select "old" files (sorted by date), "small" (sorted by size) and in other standard situations. If the window does not show full information about the files (extension, size and date of creation), you should turn to the window menu of the View/Table folder and all the characteristics of the files will be displayed in the window. Renaming files and folders. Renaming a file or folder is done either through the Rename menu, called by right-clicking on the corresponding icon, or by clicking on the name of the selected icon. Comment. Deletion or renaming is not possible if the specified file is already open by some application. Windows creates and maintains a special area of memory called the clipboard. The clipboard is used to exchange data between Windows applications. The second copying method described above involves the use of the clipboard. The Edit menu uses the Copy, Cut, and Paste options for clipboard operations. The first two places an object on the clipboard, the last one copies from the clipboard. If the object (part of text, picture, etc.) is not selected, then the first two items will be inactive. If the clipboard is empty, then the third item will not be active either. Clipboard operations are very frequent, so shortcut buttons are placed on the window toolbar. The fastest way to work with the clipboard is to use key combinations: Ctrl+C - copy; Ctrl+X - cut; Ctrl + V - paste.45.
View Customizations.
46. The essence of speech and language and their role in human life.
The Windows Start Screen is a system object called the desktop. Folder window structure
File system of a personal computer
Operations with files and folders
Working with the clipboard
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