Information systems what is more clear. Information system definition

Topic: Basic concepts of information systems. Classification of applied information systems.

1. Basic concepts of information systems (IS).

2. Classification of IP by scale, scope, method of organization.

3. List of applied information systems (PIS).

4. Basic definitions of IPR.

Keywords

Information system, classification, method of organization, scope, computer-aided design, database management systems, corporate systems, image processing system, scientific research, real-time systems, expert systems, training systems, information and reference systems, medical information systems.

1. Basic concepts of IP

Under the information system usually understood as an application software subsystem focused on the collection, storage, search and processing of textual and / or factual information. The vast majority of information systems operate in a dialogue mode with the user.

In the most general case, typical software components that are part of information systems implement:

dialog input-output;

The logic of the dialogue

application logic of data processing;

data management logic;

operations of manipulating files and (or) databases

2. Classification of information systems.

Information systems are classified according to different criteria. Consider the most commonly used methods of classification by scale, by scope, method of organization.

In terms of scale, information systems are divided into following groups(Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Division of information systems by scale

Single information systems are implemented on a stand-alone personal computer (the network is not used). Such a system may contain several simple applications, connected by a common information fund, and is designed for the work of one user or a group of users who share one workplace. Similar Applications created using the so-called desktop, or local database management systems (DBMS). Among the local DBMS, the most famous are Clarion, Clipper, d Base, Microsoft Access and etc.

Group information systems focused on the collective use of information by members working group and are most often built on the basis of local computer network. When developing such applications, database servers (also called SQL servers) are used for workgroups. There is a fairly large number of different SQL - servers, both commercial and freely distributed. Among them, the most famous database servers are Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, InterBase, Sybase, etc.

are an evolution of workgroup systems, they are focused on large companies and can support geographically dispersed nodes or networks. Basically they have hierarchical structure from several levels. Such systems are characterized by a client-server architecture with specialization of servers or a multi-level architecture. When developing such systems, the same database servers can be used as when developing group information systems. In large information systems, Oracle, DB2, and Microsoft Servers are most widely used.

For group and corporate systems, the requirements for the reliability of operation and data safety are significantly increased. These properties are provided by maintaining the integrity of data, links and transactions in database servers.

Classification by scope.

According to the scope of application, information systems are divided into four groups (Fig. 2).

transaction processing systems;

decision support systems;

information and reference systems;

office information systems.

Transaction processing systems, in turn, according to the efficiency of data processing, are divided into batch information systems and operational information systems. In organizational management information systems, the mode of online transaction processing (On line Transaction Processing, OLTP) prevails to reflect the current state subject area at any point in time, and batch processing occupies a very limited part.

Rice. 2. Division of information systems by scope.

OLTP systems are characterized by a regular (perhaps intensive) flow of fairly simple transactions that play the role of orders, payments, requests, and so on. Important requirements for them are:

· high performance of transaction processing;

Guaranteed delivery of information remote access to the telecommunications database.

Decision support systems(Decision Support System, DSS) are another type of information systems in which, with the help of quite complex queries data is selected and analyzed in various sections: temporal, geographical, and other indicators.

Extensive class information and reference systems based on hypertext documents and multimedia. Such information systems have received the greatest development on the Internet.

The class of office information systems is aimed at converting paper documents into electronic form, office automation and document management.

Classification according to the method of organization.

According to the method of organization, group and corporate information systems are divided into the following classes (Fig. 3):

systems based on file-server architecture;

systems based on client-server architecture;

systems based on a multi-level architecture;

· Systems based on Internet/Intranet technologies.

Rice. 3. Division of systems according to the method of organization.

Depending on the class of tasks, various applied information systems (PIS) are used. IPR is the production of professional information related to a specific professional activity. It provides for the collection, storage, processing, search and delivery of information necessary in the process of decision-making of tasks from any subject area. The task of IPR is to help in the analysis of problems and the creation of new products in the interests of achieving the goal. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical base and tool for any IPR. In large organizations, along with PCs, the technical base of IPRs may include servers, supercomputers, computer systems.

3. List of applied information

systems and their basic definitions.

Let's consider the list of the main applied information systems.

1. Computer-aided design systems (CAD).

2. Systems of multimedia processing.

3. Expert systems.

4. Systems scientific research and experiments.

5. Corporate systems.

6. Signal and image processing systems.

7. Real time systems.

8. Learning systems.

9. Information and reference systems.

10. Database management systems (DBMS).

11. Medical information systems.

Consider the purpose of some of them.

Among the applied information technologies, design automation occupies a special place. The use of a computer-aided design system (CAD) allows you to reduce the cost and reduce the design time while improving the quality of design solutions. Enterprises leading the development without CAD are uncompetitive due to both the large material and time costs for design, and the low quality of projects. CAD contains technical, mathematical, methodological and software. There are also information support such as CASE and CALS - technologies (CASE - Computer Aided System Engineering; CALS - Continuousr Acquisition and Life Cycle Support).

Expert systems(ES), or “knowledge-based systems”, are software that analyzes some information based on special mechanisms for representing knowledge about the subject area and inference. Expert systems are developed for a wide range of problems of diagnostics, design, planning, management, prediction, etc. The use of ES is largely due to their ability to perceive the knowledge of specialists in a particular subject area, provide access and manipulation of it, and also issue recommendations when solving practical problems at the level highly qualified expert. In ES, it is accepted to single out four essential components: a knowledge base, an inference machine, a knowledge extraction module, and an explanation system.

multimedia processing systems. Here, multimedia is understood as a set of visual and audio effects reproduced using a computer and controlled by interactive programs. Multimedia means is a set of tools that allow a person to communicate with a computer using a variety of natural media: sound, video, graphics, texts, animation, etc.

Multimedia are:

systems of speech input and output of information (speech recognition systems and speech synthesis systems);

computer means of providing sound technologies ( sound cards and acoustic systems);

· computer means of providing video technologies.

A corporate information system is a set of specialized software and a computing hardware platform on which the software is installed and configured.

Corporate information systems- these are integrated management systems for a geographically distributed corporation based on in-depth data analysis, widespread use of decision-making information support systems, electronic document management and office work. An integral part of corporate information systems are corporate networks. Known corporate networks based on OC Windows Server 2000, based on Novell NetWare 5.1 COS, etc.

In real time systems information processing takes place in real time (RTW). The mode in which the organization of data processing is subject to the pace of processes outside the data processing systems is called real-time processing. In control systems for real objects built on the basis of computers, the control process is reduced to solving a fixed set of tasks. High-performance CSs can also be classified as RWM systems.

Database management system- This is a special software package that implements centralized database management and provides access to data. DBMS allows you to structure, systematize and organize data for computer storage and processing. It is database management systems that are the basis of almost any information system. A database is a data representation information model subject area. Special DBMS languages ​​have been created. For example, to control relational databases data, the SQL language (Structured Query Language) can be used - a structured query language.

Medical Information Systems– development of technology for organizational management and processing of medical data, development of medical devices and systems.

Control questions and assignments.

1. Define the term "information systems".

2. What are computer systems? What are their varieties?

3. What is the function of corporate information systems?

4. Give a list of the main applied information systems (PIS).

5. What gives IPR designers the use of CAD?

6. What is an expert system? For what purposes are they intended?

7. Determine the main components included in the expert system.

8. What is a real time system? Which computers can be classified as real-time systems?

9. With what technical and software tools it is possible to implement multimedia?

10. What is related to medical information technologies?

11. What information support exists for creating CAD?

12. What explains the widespread use of expert systems in many areas of science and technology?

13. How is IP classified by scale, method of organization and scope?

14. How to understand the term "group IP"?

Literature: 1,2,3,5,7.

It is worth considering this issue from different points of view, which will create an overall picture. Experts say that it is an interconnected set of tools, personnel and methods used to store, process and issue information necessary to solve some specific tasks.

Basic moments

Considering, it must be said that it can have a different scale and purpose. There are other features as well. Systems can differ in the degree of coverage of different areas of the company's activities, they can be intended not only for warehouse or accounting, but also for finance, production accounting and document control of the enterprise.

Regardless of their purpose, they all have a whole set of properties that have become common to them. As the main information processing in any modern system requires the use of computers. They are tools and technical base in conjunction with specialized programs installed on them. If we talk about what an information system is, then it should be noted that its basis can be called tools developed for storing and accessing data. They are, however, intended for use by the end user, who does not need to be a computer expert. This includes client applications designed to provide an intuitive interface.

IC types

Such systems are divided into documentary and factographic. The former are focused on solving problems related to production management, accounting and other similar ones. The second ones are focused on finding unambiguous answers to queries, as well as on solving the problem in only one way. These can be heterogeneous reference and information systems, search systems, as well as those engaged in operational data processing. Documentary IS are designed to solve problems that do not provide unambiguous answers to questions. Here you can cite as an example which is becoming increasingly popular in enterprises in recent years. A mixed type of IC is allowed.

Scales

Speaking about what an information system is, it is worth mentioning such an important issue as its scale. It is customary to distinguish between individual or desktop IS, network IS, which includes several users, as well as the largest - the scale of the enterprise. It is rather difficult to imagine a modern company without the use of such a system. It does not matter in which area the activity of the enterprise is concentrated, its size is not so important either, its IP in any case serves as a core that ensures efficient management of production, trade or timely quality services. With its help, the solution of managerial tasks is simplified, it is possible to free some employees from solving various routine tasks, the probability of errors is reduced, the number of paper documents is reduced, and there are also opportunities for significant cost reduction. For this reason, any modern enterprise is different in that everything related to the information system and ensuring its smooth functioning has become the subject of special control by management personnel.

City information system of cadastral registration

The IS of the city cadastre is one of the ways to ensure the information transformation of cadastral data on objects of different types of property in a settlement. It is a complex of technical means and software, material and labor resources, which are aimed at creating information about real estate objects and its complete presentation in the form of material documents.

The city information system plays a very important role in providing data, as it serves as a effective remedy formation of the information space, which is used to manage social, economic, economic and other activities in it. In the current socio-economic conditions, the creation of such a space becomes possible only on the basis of absolute automation of such processes as the collection, processing, storage and updating of cadastral data on real estate objects. In addition, the provision of information systems provides access to all the specified data, the operational exchange between state and commercial structures of various kinds, services and organizations of the city.

The need for such a structure

On the this moment certain state, commercial and municipal organizations (land markets, mortgage banks, real estate privatization committees, tax inspectorates, insurance companies and others) can hardly fulfill their direct duties without organizing the timely exchange of cadastral information that is reliable during this period of time. That is why the development of an information system of this kind allows us to solve not only the problems of protecting property rights and taxation, but also other issues.

Non-cadastral tasks

Prompt, complete and high-quality information support of the bodies that manage the city, commercial, economic and other structures and individual citizens with complete and reliable information about the physical condition of real estate objects of various forms of ownership and other elements of the urban environment;

Analysis of the use of infrastructural, natural, labor, material, technical means and resources of the city, their distribution by form of ownership, etc.;

Works on the preparation of urban planning and architectural projects, on the design of engineering networks and other things.

Difficulties at work

The design of information systems of this kind has become necessary due to the fact that until recently there were no analogues on the domestic market that could solve such complex problems. Abroad, too, there are no such solutions, but in recent years, the intensification of work in this area is simply amazing. First Russian development in this area was the AIS GK, created by the Novosibirsk branch of RosNITS "Earth". It is focused on providing a variety of structures with reliable cadastral information: administrations, privatization committees, insurance bureaus, tax inspectorates, institutions and enterprises, mortgage, land and investment banks, as well as individuals who own real estate.

Features of data accounting

It is important to understand that certain services and organizations of the city are able to be not only passive consumers of cadastral information, but also to form it, having a huge impact on the formation of the urban information space. It is for this reason that the development of AIS GK was carried out taking into account the possibility of using software products of such users, and also provided for the safety of their fleet of technical measuring instruments. The unified information system was developed taking into account all the above features.

Construction principles used

Modularity in terms of construction, which allows you to ensure the normal functioning of each individual element, and hence their entire set as a whole;

They have a very flexible software architecture, which allows you to include new subscribers in the network and exclude them from it without compromising the operability, reliability and performance of the entire structure, and also does not require any reconfiguration;

Data is fully protected from loss in case of failures or unauthorized access to IP;

The classification and coding of data on the elements of the urban environment is unified;

Information is entered in a single format, which became possible through the use of system configuration tools that are provided by the operating system and network DBMS;

The results of geodetic changes are processed in a fully automated mode, regardless of what methods were used to collect them;

The information in the database is presented in topological integrity, it is possible to edit all types of cadastral data;

Operational control of reliability and correctness of data during all operations with them.

Such a unified information system is capable of solving not only directly cadastral tasks, but also many others associated with the development of plans for the development of territories and their reconstruction, environmental protection, rational placement of housing facilities, modeling of traffic flows, property management and many others. In addition, such a system easily incorporates user devices, tools and computers.

Alternatives

The school information system represents a completely new approach to education. With the help of important elements, timely provision of data is achieved. For example, an element like electronic diary, is used to post information about grades and homework, allowing teachers to quickly interact with students. This includes a student portfolio showing their activity in and out of school. The school information system supports the use of personal privacy settings through a personal account. Parents can quickly receive reliable information not only about academic performance, but also about homework.

So, all this allows us to understand what an information system is, how it helps in solving many important issues.

Information system is a set of software and hardware, as well as organizational support, which together provide information support to a person in various areas of his activity. I would especially like to draw the reader's attention to the fact that an information system is not only a software product and computers with network equipment, but also a list of regulations and standards for the operation of the system, the personnel involved in the management and administration of all its components and the data that this the system controls.

The management of any company implementing a new information system must first of all determine who will be the user, administrator and data provider, as well as how the operation of the system will fit into the existing staffing table, be consistent with current regulations and, finally, comply with current goals and mission of the company as a whole. Only after answering these questions, you can think about what kind of hardware will be required, and how much the software will cost.

So, most often we are faced with automated information systems - systems that require the participation of people in the processes of managing themselves. Systems that do not require human control are called automatic information systems. This does not mean that automatic systems do not have users, which means only that their work is not controlled by user actions. Of the most accessible examples of information systems operating almost automatically, one can name search engines on the Internet, such as google or Yandex, which independently search for a new one and sort existing information, and their users are just sources of requests and consumers of responses. All information systems can be roughly divided into information retrieval systems, which include the Internet services mentioned above, and data processing systems, where users already have the opportunity to correct the information controlled by the system.

By purpose, data processing information systems can be classified approximately as follows:

Automated control systems(ACS) are used to automate business process management in an enterprise (ACMS) from finance, accounting and workflow to specific technological processes in production or in the maintenance of production assets. The database of systems that automate technological processes (APCS), as a rule, contains passport data of equipment, data on events related to its operation (inspections, repairs), measurement results, tests and other information that affects the management of all this production facilities . Automated control systems consist of a large number various subsystems, including those that will be described below. All these subsystems are sources of data for ACS. Information accumulated in automated system enterprise management should also be used to analyze the effectiveness of the enterprise and plan its development in the future.

Geographic Information Systems(GIS) make it possible to store information about targets in the form of spatial data and represent this information in the form electronic card. GIS allows you to work with objects in terms of spatial queries - to select data in accordance with specified spatial criteria (belonging to a given territory, distance from a specified point, etc., etc.).

Dispatch control systems are designed to provide the relevant company personnel (dispatchers) with the ability to monitor and remotely manage the production assets of the enterprise, as well as to manage emergency situations, including monitoring the development of accidents and other unforeseen events.

Computer-Aided Design Systems(CAD, CAD) is the main tool for engineering design personnel. Such systems allow you to create drawings of design objects in in electronic format both in two and three-dimensional projections and to do so in accordance with accepted standards and with the required accuracy.

The above list is far from complete, but it is worth noting that modern information systems are increasingly difficult to attribute to any one specific type due to their complexity and versatility.

It makes sense to give here another way of classifying information systems - this is their division into real-time systems and systems operating in the usual, not tied to timing, mode. In real-time systems, the main requirement is to perform key operations within the time period allotted by the regulations. If the operation cannot be performed within the specified period, and the process of its complete and correct processing extended in time may adversely affect the processing of other similar actions, then such an operation is stopped or postponed. The operation of a real-time system in a first approximation can be represented as software processing external events that can occur and last in parallel to each other and be associated with different objects controlled (observed) by the system. Most dispatch systems are required to work in real time, and one example of such systems is SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition). SCADA system is a software tool for real-time process control, and this control is carried out by monitoring and remote control dispatchable object, which can be, in particular, production equipment.

The concept of an information system

Under system understand any object that is simultaneously considered both as a single whole and as a set of heterogeneous elements united in the interests of achieving the goals set. Systems differ significantly from each other both in composition and in main goals.

In computer science, the concept of "system" is widespread and has many semantic meanings. Most often it is used in relation to a set of hardware and software. The system can be called the hardware part of the computer. A system can also be considered a set of programs for solving specific applied problems, supplemented by procedures for maintaining documentation and managing calculations.

The addition of the word "information" to the concept of "system" reflects the purpose of its creation and functioning. Information systems ensure the collection, storage, processing, search, and issuance of information necessary in the process of making decisions on tasks from any area. They help analyze problems and create new products.

Information system- an interconnected set of means, methods and personnel used for storing, processing and issuing information in the interests of achieving the goal.

The modern understanding of the information system involves the use of a personal computer as the main technical means of processing information. In large organizations, along with a personal computer, the technical base of the information system may include a mainframe or supercomputer. In addition, the technical implementation of the information system in itself will mean nothing if the role of the person for whom the produced information is intended and without which it is impossible to receive and present it is not taken into account.

Attention! By organization we mean a community of people united by common goals and using common material and financial means for the production of material and information products and services. Two words will be used in the text on an equal footing: "organization" and "firm".

It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical base and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.

Stages of development of information systems

The history of the development of information systems and the purpose of their use for different periods are presented in the table below

The first information systems appeared in the 1950s. During these years, they were intended for processing invoices and payroll, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting calculating machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for the preparation of paper documents.

60s are marked by a change in attitudes towards information systems. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. Today, organizations needed general-purpose computing equipment capable of performing many functions, and not just processing invoices and calculating payroll, as was the case in the past.

In the 70s - early 80s. information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.

By the end of the 80s. the concept of using information systems is changing again. They become strategic source information and are used at all levels of the organization of any profile. Information systems of this period, providing on time necessary information, help the organization achieve success in its activities, create new products and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize the release of products at a low price, and much more.

Processes in the information system

The processes that ensure the operation of an information system for any purpose can be conditionally represented as a diagram consisting of blocks:

• input of information from external or internal sources;

• processing input information and presenting it in a convenient form;

• output of information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;

• feedback is information processed by the people of this organization to correct the input information.

An information system is defined by the following properties:

• any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles for building systems;

• the information system is dynamic and evolving;

• when building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;

• the output of the information system is the information on the basis of which decisions are made;

• the information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.

Currently, there is an opinion about the information system as a system implemented using computer technology. Although in the general case, the information system can be understood in a non-computer version.

To understand the operation of an information system, it is necessary to understand the essence of the problems that it solves, as well as the organizational processes in which it is included. So, for example, when determining the possibility of a computer information system for decision support, one should take into account

• structuring of the managerial tasks to be solved;

• the level of the firm's management hierarchy at which the decision must be made;

• belonging of the problem to be solved to one or another functional area of ​​business;

• type of information technology used.

The technology of working in a computer information system is understandable by a non-computer specialist and can be successfully used to control and manage professional activity processes.

What can be expected from the implementation of information systems

the introduction of information systems can contribute to:

• obtaining more rational options for solving management problems through the introduction mathematical methods and intelligent systems, etc.;

• release of workers from routine work due to its automation;

• ensuring the reliability of information;

• replacement of paper data carriers with magnetic disks or tapes, which leads to a more rational organization of information processing on a computer and a reduction in the volume of documents on paper;

• improving the structure of information flows and the document management system in the company;

• reducing the cost of producing products and services;

• providing consumers with unique services;

• finding new market niches;

• binding buyers and suppliers to the company by providing them with various discounts and services.

The role of the management structure in the information system

General provisions

The creation and use of an information system for any organization is aimed at solving the following problems.

1. The structure of the information system, its functional purpose should correspond to the goals facing the organization. For example, in a commercial firm - an efficient business; in a state enterprise - the solution of social and economic problems.

2. The information system must be controlled by people, understood and used by them in accordance with basic social and ethical principles.

3. Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematized information.

Building an information system can be compared to building a house. Bricks, nails, cement, and other materials put together do not make a home. We need a project, land management, construction, etc., in order for a house to appear.

Similarly, to create and use an information system, you must first understand the structure, functions and policies of the organization, the goals of management and decisions, the capabilities of computer technology. The information system is a part of the organization, and the key elements of any organization are the structure and management bodies, standard procedures, personnel, subculture.

Building an information system should begin with an analysis of the organization's management structure.

Organization management structure

Coordination of the work of all departments of the organization is carried out through the management bodies of different levels. Under management understand the achievement of the goal, subject to implementation following functions: organizational, planned, accounting, analysis, control, stimulation.

Consider the content managerial functions:

organizational function consists in the development of an organizational structure and a set of regulatory documents: the staffing of a company, department, laboratory, group, etc. indicating subordination, responsibility, scope of competence, rights, duties, etc. Most often, this is stated in the position of the department, laboratory or job descriptions.

Planning (scheduling function) consists in the development and implementation of plans for the implementation of the tasks. For example, a business plan for the entire firm, a production plan, a marketing research plan, a financial plan, a research plan, etc. for different periods (year, quarter, month, day).

Accounting function consists in the development or use of ready-made forms and methods for accounting for the performance of the company: accounting, financial accounting, management accounting, etc. In general, accounting can be defined as receiving, registering, accumulating, processing and providing information about real business processes.

Analysis or analytic function associated with the study of the results of the implementation of plans and orders, the determination of influencing factors, the identification of reserves, the study of development trends, etc. The analysis is performed by different specialists depending on the complexity and level of the analyzed object or process. An analysis of the results of the company's economic activity for a year or more is carried out by specialists, and at the level of a shop, department, a manager of this level (head or his deputy) together with a specialist economist.

control function most often carried out by a manager: control over the implementation of plans, the expenditure of material resources, the use of financial resources, etc.

Stimulation or the motivational function involves the development and application of various methods of stimulating the work of subordinate workers:

• financial incentives - salary, bonuses, promotions, promotions, etc.;

• psychological incentives - thanks, certificates, titles, degrees, honor boards, etc.

In recent years, the concept of "decision making" and related systems, methods, and decision support tools have been increasingly used in the field of management.

Decision-making- an act of purposeful influence on the control object, based on the analysis of the situation, the definition of a goal, the development of a program to achieve this goal.

The management structure of any organization is traditionally divided into three levels: operational, functional and strategic.

Management levels(type of management activity) are determined by the complexity of the tasks to be solved. The more difficult the task, the more high level management is required to solve it. At the same time, it should be understood that there are a much larger number of simpler tasks that require an immediate (operational) solution, which means that they need a different level of management - a lower one, where decisions are made promptly. When managing, it is also necessary to take into account the dynamics of the implementation of the decisions made, which allows us to consider management from the angle of the time factor.

The figure below shows three levels of management, which are correlated with such factors as the degree of increase in power, responsibility, the complexity of the tasks being solved, as well as the dynamics of decision-making on the implementation of tasks.

Operational (lower) level management provides a solution to repetitive tasks and operations and a quick response to changes in input current information. At this level, both the volume of operations performed and the dynamics of managerial decision-making are quite large. This level of management is often referred to as operational because of the need to quickly respond to changing situations. At the level of operational (operational) management, a large volume is occupied by accounting tasks.

Functional (tactical) level management provides a solution to problems that require a preliminary analysis of information prepared at the first level. At this level, such a management function as analysis is of great importance. The volume of tasks to be solved decreases, but their complexity increases. At the same time, it is not always possible to develop the right solution promptly; additional time is required for analysis, comprehension, collection of missing information, etc. Management is associated with some delay from the moment information is received to decision-making and their implementation, as well as from the moment decisions are implemented to receiving a reaction to them.

Strategic level ensures the development of management decisions aimed at achieving the long-term strategic goals of the organization. Since the results of the decisions made appear after long time, such a management function as strategic planning is of particular importance at this level. Other management functions at this level are currently not fully developed. Often the strategic level of management is called strategic or long-term planning. The legitimacy of the decision made at this level can be confirmed after a sufficiently long time. Months or years may pass. The responsibility for making managerial decisions is extremely high and is determined not only by the results of analysis using mathematical and special tools, but also by the professional intuition of managers.

Examples of information systems

Information system for finding market niches. When buying goods in some companies, the information system registers data about the buyer, which allows:

determine groups of buyers, their composition and requests, and then focus their strategy on the largest group;

send potential buyers various offers, advertisements, reminders;

provide regular customers with goods and services on credit, at a discount, with deferred payments.

Information Systems, accelerated flow of goods. Suppose a firm specializes in the supply of products to a particular institution, such as a hospital. As you know, it is very unprofitable to have large stocks of products in the company's warehouses, and it is impossible not to have them. In order to find the optimal solution to this problem, the company installs terminals in the serviced institution and connects them to the information system. The customer directly from the terminal enters his wishes according to the catalog provided to him. These data are entered into the information system for accounting orders.

Managers, making selections on incoming orders, make operational management decisions on the delivery of the right product to the customer in a short period of time. In this way, a lot of money is saved on the storage of goods, the flow of goods is accelerated and simplified, and the needs of buyers are monitored.

Information systems to reduce production costs. These information systems, tracking all phases of the production process, contribute to improved management and control, more rational planning and use of personnel and, as a result, reduce the cost of products and services.

Information systems automation technology("management of concessions"). The essence of this technology is that if the company's income remains within the margins of profitability, different discounts are made to the consumer depending on the number and duration of contracts. In this case, the consumer becomes interested in interacting with the company, and the company thereby attracts an additional number of customers. If the client does not want to interact with this firm and switches to another service, then his costs may increase due to the loss of discounts provided to him earlier.

Structure and classification of information systems

Information system structure

Types of supporting subsystems

Structure information system is a collection of its individual parts, called subsystems.

Subsystem- this is a part of the system, allocated on any basis.

The overall structure of an information system can be viewed as a set of subsystems, regardless of the scope. In this case they say about the structural feature of the classification, and subsystems are called providing. Thus, the structure of any information system can be represented by a set of supporting subsystems

Among the supporting subsystems, information, technical, mathematical, software, organizational and legal support are usually distinguished.

Information Support

The purpose of the information support subsystem is the modern formation and delivery of reliable information for making managerial decisions.

Information Support- a set of a unified system for classifying and coding information, unified documentation systems, schemes for information flows circulating in an organization, as well as a methodology for building databases.

Unified documentation systems are created at the state, republican, branch and regional levels. The main goal is to ensure comparability of indicators of various spheres of social production. Standards have been developed where the requirements are established:

• to unified documentation systems;

• to unified forms of documents of various levels of management;

• to the composition and structure of details and indicators;

• to the procedure for the introduction, maintenance and registration of unified forms of documents.

However, despite the existence of a unified documentation system, when examining most organizations, a whole range of typical shortcomings is constantly revealed:

• extremely large volume of documents for manual processing;
• the same indicators are often duplicated in different documents;
• work with the large quantity documents distract specialists from solving immediate problems;
• there are indicators that are created but not used, etc.

Therefore, the elimination of these shortcomings is one of the tasks facing the creation of information support.

Information flow schemes reflect the routes of movement of information and its volumes, the places of origin of primary information and the use of resulting information. By analyzing the structure of such schemes, it is possible to develop measures to improve the entire management system.

The construction of schemes of information flows, allowing to identify the volumes of information and conduct its detailed analysis, provides:

• exclusion of duplicate and unused information;

• classification and rational presentation of information.

The methodology for building databases is based on theoretical foundations their design. To understand the concept of the methodology, we present its main ideas in the form of two successively implemented stages in practice:

Stage 1 - a survey of all functional divisions of the company in order to:

• understand the specifics and structure of its activities;

• build a diagram of information flows;

• analyze the existing document management system;

• determine information objects and the corresponding composition of details (parameters, characteristics) that describe their properties and purpose.

2nd stage - construction of a conceptual information-logical data model for the field of activity surveyed at the 1st stage. In this model, all connections between objects and their details must be established and optimized. The information-logical model is the foundation on which the database will be created.

• a clear understanding of the goals, objectives, functions of the entire management system of the organization;

• identification of the movement of information from the moment of occurrence to its use at various levels of management, presented for analysis in the form of schemes of information flows;

• improvement of the document management system;

• availability and use of a classification and coding system;

• possession of the methodology for creating conceptual information-logical models that reflect the relationship of information;

• creation of information arrays on machine media, which requires modern technical support.

Technical support

Technical support- a set of technical means designed for the operation of the information system, as well as the relevant documentation for these tools and technological processes

The complex of technical means consists of:

• computers of any models;

• devices for collecting, accumulating, processing, transmitting and outputting information;

• data transmission devices and communication lines;

• office equipment and devices for automatic data retrieval;

• operating materials, etc.

The documentation includes the preliminary selection of technical means, the organization of their operation, the technological process of data processing, technological equipment. Documentation can be roughly divided into three groups:

• system-wide, including state and industry standards for technical support;

• specialized, containing a set of methods for all stages of the development of technical support;

• normative-reference used when performing calculations for technical support.

To date, two main forms of organizing technical support (forms of using technical means) have developed: centralized and partially or completely decentralized.

Centralized technical support is based on the use of large computers and computer centers in the information system.

Decentralization of technical means involves the implementation functional subsystems on personal computers directly at the workplace.

A promising approach should be considered, apparently, a partially decentralized approach - the organization of technical support based on distributed networks, consisting of personal computers and mainframe computers for storing databases common to any functional subsystems.

Mathematics and software- a set of mathematical methods, models, algorithms and programs for the implementation of the goals and objectives of the information system, as well as the normal functioning of the complex of technical means.

To the means software relate:

• management process modeling tools;

• typical control tasks;

• methods mathematical programming, mathematical statistics, queuing theory, etc.

Part software includes system-wide and special software products and technical documentation.

TO general system software include sets of user-oriented programs designed to solve typical problems of information processing. They serve to expand functionality computers, control and management of the data processing process.

Special software is a set of programs developed during the creation of a particular information system. It includes packages application programs(PPP) that implement the developed models of varying degrees of adequacy, reflecting the functioning of a real object.

Technical documentation for the development of software should contain a description of the tasks, a task for algorithmization, an economic and mathematical model of the task, and test cases.

Organizational support

Organizational support- this is a set of methods and tools that regulate the interaction of employees with technical means and among themselves in the process of developing and operating IS.

Organizational support implements the following functions:

• analysis existing system management of the organization where IS will be used, and identification of tasks to be automated;

• preparation of tasks for solving on a computer, including technical task for the design of IS and the feasibility study of its effectiveness;

• development of management decisions on the composition and structure of the organization, methodology for solving problems aimed at improving the efficiency of the management system.

Organizational support is created based on the results of a pre-project survey at the 1st stage of building a database.

Legal support

Legal support- a set of legal norms that determine the creation, legal status and operation of information systems that regulate the procedure for obtaining, transforming and using information.

The main purpose of legal support is to strengthen the rule of law.

The composition of legal support includes laws, decrees, resolutions of state authorities, orders, instructions and other regulatory documents of ministries, departments, organizations, local authorities. In legal support, one can single out a general part that regulates the functioning of any information system, and a local part that regulates the functioning of a particular system.

Legal support for the stages of information system development includes regulations related to contractual relations between the developer and the customer and the legal regulation of deviations from the contract.

Legal support of the stages of functioning of the information system includes:

• information system status;

• rights, duties and responsibilities of personnel;

• the procedure for creating and using information, etc.

Classification of information systems on the basis of structured tasks

The concept of structured tasks

When creating or classifying information systems, problems inevitably arise related to the formal - mathematical and algorithmic description of the tasks being solved. The degree of formalization largely determines the efficiency of the entire system, as well as the level of automation, determined by the degree of human participation in making decisions based on the information received.

The more precisely mathematical description tasks, the higher the possibilities of computer data processing and the less the degree of human participation in the process of solving it. This determines the degree of task automation.

There are three types of tasks for which information systems are created: structured (formalized), unstructured (not formalized) and partially structured.

Structured (formalizable) task- a task where all its elements and the relationships between them are known.

Unstructured (non-formalizable) task- a task in which it is impossible to select elements and establish relationships between them.

In a structured problem, it is possible to express its content in the form of a mathematical model that has an exact solution algorithm. Such tasks usually have to be solved repeatedly, and they are of a routine nature. The purpose of using an information system for solving structured problems is the complete automation of their solution, i.e. reducing the human role to zero.

Types of information systems used to solve partially structured problems

Information systems used to solve partially structured tasks are divided into two types that create management reports and are mainly focused on data processing (search, sorting, aggregation, filtering). Using the information contained in these reports, the manager makes a decision;

Information Systems, creating management reports, provide information support to the user, i.e. provide access to information in the database and its partial processing. Procedures for manipulating data in an information system should provide the following capabilities:

• compiling combinations of data obtained from various sources;

• quick addition or exclusion of one or another data source and automatic switching of sources when searching for data;

• data management using the capabilities of database management systems;

• logical independence of this type of data from other databases included in the information support subsystem;

• automatic tracking of the flow of information to populate databases.

Information Systems, developing alternative solutions can be model and expert.

Model information systems provide the user with mathematical, static, financial and other models, the use of which facilitates the development and evaluation of alternative solutions. The user can obtain the information he lacks for making a decision by establishing a dialogue with the model in the process of its study.

The main functions of the model information system are:

• the ability to work in the environment of standard mathematical models, including solving basic modeling problems such as "how to do that?", "what will happen if?", sensitivity analysis, etc.;

• sufficiently fast and adequate interpretation of the simulation results;

• operational preparation and adjustment of input parameters and model constraints;

• the ability to graphically display the dynamics of the model;

• the ability to explain to the user the necessary steps for the formation and operation of the model.

Expert information systems ensure the development and evaluation of possible alternatives by the user through the creation of expert systems associated with the processing of knowledge. Expert support for user-made decisions is implemented at two levels.

The work of the first level of expert support proceeds from the concept of "standard management decisions", according to which problem situations that often arise in the management process can be reduced to some homogeneous classes of management decisions, i.e. to some standard set of alternatives. To implement expert support at this level, an information fund is created for storing and analyzing typical alternatives.

If the problem situation is not associated with the existing classes of typical alternatives, the second level of expert support for management decisions should come into play. This level generates alternatives on the basis of data available in the information fund, transformation rules and procedures for evaluating synthesized alternatives.

Other classifications of information systems

Classification by degree of automation

Depending on the degree of automation information processes in the company management system, information systems are defined as manual, automatic, automated

Hand ICs are characterized by the absence of modern technical means of information processing and the performance of all operations by a person. For example, about the activities of a manager in a company where there are no computers, we can say that he works with a manual IS.

Automatic ICs perform all information processing operations without human intervention.

Automated ICs involve the participation in the process of information processing of both a person and technical means, with the computer playing the main role. In the modern interpretation, the term "information system" necessarily includes the concept of an automated system.

Automated information systems, given their widespread use in the organization of management processes, have various modifications and can be classified, for example, by the nature of the use of information and by scope.

Classification by the nature of the use of information

Information retrieval systems produce input, systematization, storage, issuance of information at the request of the user without complex data transformations. For example, an information retrieval system in a library, in railway and air ticket offices.

Information decision systems carry out all operations of information processing according to a certain algorithm. Among them, one can classify according to the degree of impact of the resulting information on the decision-making process and distinguish two classes: managers and advisers.

IS managers produce information on the basis of which a person makes a decision. These systems are characterized by the type of tasks of a computational nature and the processing of large amounts of data. An example is the system of operational planning of production, the accounting system.

Advising ISs develop information that is taken into account by a person and does not immediately turn into a series of specific actions. These systems have a higher degree of intelligence, as they are characterized by the processing of knowledge rather than data.

Classification by scope

Information Systems organizational management designed to automate the functions of managerial personnel. Given the widest application and diversity of this class of systems, often any information systems are understood precisely in this interpretation. This class includes information management systems for both industrial firms and non-industrial facilities: hotels, banks, trading firms, etc. The main functions of such systems are: operational control and regulation, operational accounting and analysis, long-term and operational planning, accounting, management sales and supply and other economic and organizational tasks.

Process Control IC (TP) serve to automate the functions of production personnel. They are widely used in the organization to maintain the technological process in the metallurgical and engineering industries.

IS computer-aided design (CAD) designed to automate the functions of design engineers, designers, architects, designers when creating new equipment or technology. The main functions of such systems are: engineering calculations, creation of graphic documentation (drawings, diagrams, plans), creation of project documentation, modeling of designed objects.

Integrated (corporate) IS are used to automate all functions of the company and cover the entire cycle of work from design to product sales. The creation of such systems is very difficult, since it requires a systematic approach from the standpoint of the main goal, for example, making a profit, conquering a sales market, etc. Such an approach can lead to significant changes in the very structure of the company, which not every manager can decide on.

Document Information Systems

Unlike factographic information systems, a single data element in documentary [information systems] is a document unstructured into smaller elements. In the vast majority of cases, unstructured documents are primarily text documents presented in the form text files, although the class of unstructured documented data may also include sound and graphic files.

The main task of documentary information systems is the accumulation and provision of documents to the user, the content, subject matter, details, etc. of which are adequate to his information needs. Therefore, one can give the following definition of a documentary information system - single repository documents with tools for searching and selecting the necessary documents. The search nature of documentary information systems has historically determined another of their names - information retrieval systems (IPS), although this term does not fully reflect the specifics of documentary information systems.

The correspondence of the found documents to the information needs of the user is called pertinence.

Due to theoretical and practical difficulties with the formalization of the semantic content of documents, pertinence refers more to qualitative concepts, although, as will be discussed below, it can be expressed by certain quantitative indicators.

Depending on the features of the implementation of the document repository and search mechanisms, documentary IPS can be divided into two groups:

• index-based systems;
• semantic navigation systems.

V semantic navigation systems documents, placed in the storage (base) of documents, are equipped with special navigation structures corresponding to semantic links (references) between different documents or separate fragments of one document. Such constructions implement some semantic* (semantic) network in the document base. Method and mechanism for expressing information needs in similar systems consist in explicit user navigation through semantic references between documents. Currently, this approach is implemented in hypertext IPS.

V index-based systems source documents are placed in the database without any additional transformation, but the semantic content of each document is displayed in some search space. The process of displaying a document in the search space is called indexing and consists in assigning to each document some index-coordinate in the search space. A formalized representation (description) of a document index is called a document search image (DOI). The user expresses his information needs by means and language of the search space, forming a search image of the request (POZ) to the base of documents. The system, based on certain criteria and methods, searches for documents whose search images correspond or are close to the search images of the user's request, and issues the corresponding documents. The correspondence of the found documents to the user's request is called relevance. Schematically, the general principle of the structure and functioning of documentary IPS based on indexing is illustrated in Fig.

Rice. The general principle of the design and functioning of documentary IPS based on indexing

A feature of documentary information systems is also that their functions, as a rule, include the tasks of informing users about all new documents entering the system that correspond to predetermined information needs of the user.

The principle of solving the problems of information notification in documentary IS based on indexing is similar to the principle of solving the problems of searching for documents by queries and is based on displaying the user's information needs in the search space in the form of the so-called search user profiles (SPU). The information retrieval system, as new documents are received and indexed, compares their images with search user profiles and decides on the appropriate notification. The principle of solving the problems of information notification is schematically illustrated in fig.

Rice. The principle of solving the problems of information notification in documentary information systems based on indexing

The search space that displays the search images of documents and implements the mechanisms for information retrieval of documents in the same way as in the DBMS of factographic systems is built on the basis of documentary database languages, called information retrieval languages ​​(ILL). Information retrieval language is a formalized semantic system, designed to express the content of the document and queries to find the necessary documents. By analogy with database languages ​​of factographic systems, ILP can be divided into structural and manipulation components.

Structural component ISP (search space) documentary IPS based on indexing is implemented by index indexes in the form of information retrieval catalogs, thesauri and general indexes.

Information search directories are traditional technologies for organizing information retrieval in the documentary funds of libraries, archives and represent a classification system of knowledge in a particular subject area. The semantic content of a document in information retrieval catalogs is displayed by one or another class of the catalog, and document indexing consists in assigning to each document a special code (index) corresponding to the content of the class (classes) of the catalog and creating on this basis a special index index.

Thesaurus is a specially organized set of basic lexical units (concepts) of the subject area (dictionary of terms) and a description of the paradigmatic relations between them. Paradigmatic relations are expressed by semantic relations between elements of the dictionary, independent of any context. Independence from the context means the generalization (abstraction) of semantic relations, for example, the relations “genus-species”, “object-whole”, “subject-object-means-place-time of action”. Just like in information retrieval catalogs, in systems based on thesauri, not the entire text of the document is displayed in the information retrieval space, but only the semantic content of the document expressed by means of the thesaurus.

General index (concordance)(global dictionary-index) in general view is a listing of all words (word forms) available in the documents of the repository, indicating (references) the coordinate location of each word (document number - paragraph number - sentence number - word number). Indexing of a new document in such systems is done through the addition of coordinate references of those word forms of the general index that are present in the new document. Since the search space in such systems reflects the entire text of the document (all the words of the document), and not just its semantic content, such systems are called full-text IPS.

In the specialized literature, such systems are sometimes called systems without lexical control, i.e., without taking into account the possible synonymy of individual groups of word forms, the unification of individual groups of word forms into common semantic groups, and the semantic relationships between word forms.

Structural component The IPN of semantic navigation systems is implemented as a technique of semantic references in the texts of documents and a special navigation interface for them and is currently represented by hypertext technologies.

Search (manipulation) component of IEP implemented by descriptor and semantic query languages. V descriptor languages documents and queries are represented as sets of some lexical units (words, phrases, terms) - descriptors that do not have links between themselves, or, as they say, do not have grammar. Thus, each document or request is associated, or better said, represented by some set of descriptors. The search is carried out by searching for documents with a suitable set of descriptors. The elements-descriptors are either elements of the dictionary of key terms, or elements of the general index (global dictionary of all word forms). Due to the absence of links between descriptors, the set of which for a specific document and a specific query expresses, respectively, the search image of the document - the DOD or the search image of the request POZ, such languages ​​are used primarily in full-text systems.

Semantic languages contain grammatical and semantic constructions to express (describe) the semantic content of documents and queries. The whole variety of semantic languages ​​is divided into two large groups:

• predicate languages;
• relational languages.

V predicate languages as an elementary meaningful construction of an utterance, a predicate is used, which is a multi-place relation of a certain set of grammatical elements. The plurality of the relation means that each element of the predicate plays a certain role for the group of lexical elements as a whole, but does not have specific relations with each element of this group separately. An analogue of a predicate statement in natural language is a sentence stating a certain fact or describing a certain event.

V relational languages lexical units of statements can only enter into binary (with each other), but not into joint, i.e., not many-place relations.

Functional classes of natural language act as lexical units of semantic languages, the most important of which are:

• concept-classes ( general definition collections of homogeneous elements of the real world, which have a certain characteristic set of properties that allow one concept-class to be separated from others);
• action concepts (a lexical element that expresses the dynamics of the real world contains a universal set of features, including the subject of the action, the object of the action, the time of the action, the scene of the action, the instrument of the action, the goal, etc.);
• notions-states (lexical elements fixing the states of objects);
• names (lexical elements identifying concepts-classes);
• relations (lexical elements that serve to establish links on a set of concepts and names);
• quantifiers (universality, existence, etc.).

Semantic languages ​​form the language-manipulation basis of information retrieval catalogs, thesauri and semantic-navigational (hypertext) IPS, describing the catalogs, thesauri, semantic networks themselves and expressing the semantic content of documents and queries by their own means.

Performance indicators

The main indicators of the effectiveness of the functioning of documentary IPS are the completeness and accuracy of information retrieval.

Completeness of information retrieval R is determined by the ratio of the number of found pertinent documents A to the total number of pertinent documents C available in the system or in the studied set of documents:

Information retrieval accuracy P is determined by the ratio of the number of found pertinent documents A to the total number of documents L issued at the user's request:

The presence among the irrelevant documents selected at the request of the user is called the information noise of the system. Information noise ratio k, respectively, is determined by the ratio of the number of irrelevant documents (L-A) issued in response to the user to the total number of documents L issued to the user's request:

Ideally, the completeness of information retrieval and the accuracy of information retrieval should approach unity, although in practice their values ​​range from 60 to 90%.

Literature

1. Danilevsky Yu.G., Petukhov I.A., Shibanov B.C. Information technology in industry. - L .: Mechanical engineering. Leningrad. department, 1988.

2. Information technology, economics, culture / Sat. reviews and abstracts. - M.: INION RAN, 1995.

3. Information systems in economics / Ed. V.V. Dick. - M.: Finance and statistics, 1996.

1. State information systems are created for the purpose of exercising the powers of state bodies and ensuring the exchange of information between these bodies, as well as for other purposes established by federal laws.

2. State information systems are created, modernized and operated taking into account the requirements stipulated by the legislation Russian Federation on the contract system in the field of procurement of goods, works, services to meet state and municipal needs or the legislation of the Russian Federation on public-private partnerships, on municipal-private partnerships, legislation on concession agreements, and in cases where the operation of state information systems is carried out without involving budget funds budget system Russian Federation, in accordance with other federal laws.

3. State information systems are created and operated on the basis of statistical and other documented information provided by citizens ( individuals), organizations, state bodies, local governments.

4. Lists of types of information provided on a mandatory basis are established by federal laws, the conditions for its provision - by the Government of the Russian Federation or the relevant state bodies, unless otherwise provided by federal laws. If, during the creation or operation of state information systems, it is planned to implement or process publicly available information provided for by the lists approved in accordance with Article 14 federal law dated February 9, 2009 N 8-FZ "On providing access to information about the activities of state bodies and local governments", state information systems should ensure the placement of such information on the Internet in the form of open data.

(see text in previous edition)

4.1. The Government of the Russian Federation determines the cases in which access via the Internet to information contained in state information systems is provided exclusively to information users who have been authorized in the unified identification and authentication system, as well as the procedure for using the unified identification and authentication system.

5. Unless otherwise established by the decision on the creation of the state information system, the functions of its operator are carried out by the customer who has concluded a state contract for the creation of such an information system. At the same time, the commissioning of the state information system is carried out in the manner established by the specified customer.

5.1. In the event of the creation or modernization of a state information system on the basis of a concession agreement or an agreement on public-private partnership, the functions of the operator of this system within the limits, to the extent and within the time limits provided for by the relevant agreement, are carried out by the concessionaire or a private partner.

6. The Government of the Russian Federation approves the requirements for the procedure for the creation, development, commissioning, operation and decommissioning of state information systems, further storage of the information contained in their databases, including the list, content and timing of the implementation of the stages of measures for the creation, development commissioning, operation and decommissioning of state information systems, further storage of information contained in their databases.

(see text in previous edition)

7. It is not allowed to operate the state information system without proper registration of the rights to use its components that are objects of intellectual property.

8. Technical means intended for processing information contained in state information systems, including software and hardware means and means of protecting information, must comply with the requirements of the legislation of the Russian Federation on technical regulation.

9. Information contained in state information systems, as well as other information and documents at the disposal of state bodies are state information resources. Information contained in state information systems is official. State bodies, determined in accordance with the regulatory legal act regulating the functioning of the state information system, are obliged to ensure the reliability and relevance of the information contained in this information system, access to this information in cases and in the manner prescribed by law, as well as protection of this information from illegal access, destruction, modification, blocking, copying, provision, distribution and other illegal actions.

(see text in previous edition)